On Sardinia important changes took place in the seventh and sixth century BC as a consequence of changes in the eastern Mediterranean and the rise of the most important colony of Tyrus: Carthage. These changes took the form of a wave of secundary colonization aimed at the control of the territories surrounding the Phoenician cities. The Sardinian phoenicians themselves already were gaining more control over the surrounding Sardic lands ¹. At the end of the sixth century BC Sardinia had become Punic. Punic is a roman word derived from the Greek Phoinike that indicated the Phoenicians.

Carthage versus Sardinia

The Phoenician cities in the Lebanon became more isolated from the west. This had mainly three causes. The first was the aggressive Assyrian policy aimed at domination of the entire Middle-East and Egypt and threatened the independence of the Phoenician city states. The second cause was the inflation of the prices of silver, because of the large quantities of this metal brought to the east by Tyrus from Spain. With silver giving a smaller return, investing in long distance travelling was less interesting for the merchants. The third cause was the colonization by the Greeks of Southern-Italy and Sicily, thereby gaining control over the seas and straits, which made travelling to the west more difficult for the Phoenicians ². Around 540, halfway the sixth century BC, Carthage started succumbing the Phoenician cities in the west to her rule; first on Sicily then on Sardinia. Although Malchus (also known as Malco, according to the sources a Carthaginian general) succeeded in Sicily, he was beaten by a coalition of Sards and Phoenicians on Sardinia that did not want the Carthaginians to gain control over their territory ³. In fact there is archeological evidence of this in the destruction of Monte Sirai, the settlement that was abandoned at that time ⁴. In the end Carthage did gain control over Sardinia and the Phoenician settlements. Two important historical facts of the last decennia of the century illustrate the power of Carthage and the situation of Sardinia. The first is the battle in the Sardinia Sea (Mare Sardonio) between Carthaginians and Etruscans against the Phoceans, mentioned by Herodotos. The second is the treaty between Rome and Carthage of 509 BC mentioned by Polybius.

The Phoceans, founders of Massalia (Marseille) and Alalia (Corsica) in earlier times had been driven out of the east by the Persiand. After drifting around for some time they decided to go to Corsica to the existing colony of Alalia and settle themselves there. They took to piracy in the Tyrrhenian sea and attacked etruscan and punic (and of course Sardinian) ships. Carthaginians and Etruscans decided to attack the Phoceans together to end the piracy and so the first sea battle recorded in history took place off the coast of Corsica and Sardinia, known as the battle of the Sardinia Sea. The Phoceans claimed the victory but had to abandon Alalia. They moved to Velia on the Souther-Italian coast (still known as archeological site) ⁵.

In the treaty between Rome and Carthage of 509 BC it is mentioned that no Roman could set foot on Sardinia or trade on Sardinian soil. Historians and archaeologists see this as proof that Sardinia was finally under Carthaginian rule. ⁶. Sardinia would remain under Punic rule until 238 BC when the island was taken over by the Romans. Only once is mentioned a rsiing against Punic rule in 368 BC ⁷ .

Architecture and Urbanization

Under Punic rule urbanization continued in the Phoenician cities of Sardinia. Walls as a protection against raids from inland Sardic barbarians were erected or reinforced and temples in stone were built ⁸. Because Carthage did not succeed in succumbing the entire island they had to control the barbaric inland by creating a fortification system to protect the main cities on the coast. They also tried to bind the local peoples to them by building the temple of Antas in the mining district of Iglesias, dedicating it to the main Sardic god, Sid (also known as Sardus Pater by the romans) ⁹.

The tophet remained an important sanctuary in punic times and more intesely used. Many steles have been deposited in punic times in the sanctuary ¹⁰. The Punic gods were not very different to the Phoenician gods; the main goddess being Tanit (Astarte), Melqart (Baal) and Eshmun. Also mainly punic are the gravechambers as can be seen in Sulcis (Sant'Antioco) where literally an extended maze of catacombs has been created by the chambers adn some have been in use until our days as hosuign for the very poor ¹¹. Near Tharros on the promontory of Capo San Marco there are similar gravechambers, now fallen apart under the working of time and weather.

The Sardinian economy in punic times

According to roman sources the landowners were forced to grow only cereals under Carthaginian rule and that it was forbidden to plant grapes and olive trees or fruit trees. Possibly this has been a propagandistic element against Carthage and the Punics. It is true that Sardinia was important for the grain supplies of Carthage as it would be in later days for Rome ¹². Important was the production of jewelry with the use of gold, silver, coral and jasper from the town of Tharros. Jewelry has been found in the western mediterranean that could be retraced to the workshops on Sardinia. Fortunately some have been preserved from the grave chambers that have been emptied by looters and treasure hunters, and are now in museums like the British Museum in London ¹³.

Notes:

¹ Barreca 1974, p.46; Sheratt and Sheratt 1993, p. 370-371
² Markoe 2000, p.140-143 ; Bunnens 1983, p. 191 ; Frankenstein 1979, p.291 ; Bondì 2000, p. 57 e.v.
³ Barreca 1974, p. 57; Moscati 1985, p. 147 ; Bondì 2000, p. 63-65
⁴ Barreca 1974, p. 58
⁵ Barreca 1974, p. 63; Moscati 1985, p. 148, Morel 2000, p. 21-25; Gras 2000, p.37-43; Colonna 2000, p. 47-53
⁶ Barreca 1974, p. 64 ; Moscati 1985, p. 148 ; Fantar 2000, p. 84
⁷ Barreca 1974, p. 69-70 ; Moscati 1985, p. 150
⁸ Barreca 1974, p. 142; Moscati 1985, p. 149
⁹ Barreca 1974, p. 142 en 244 e.v.; Moscati 1985, p. 149
¹⁰ Barreca 1974, p. 232; Moscati 1985, p. 161; Tronchetti 1995, p. 3-11
¹¹ Moscati 1985, p. 162-163
¹² Moscati 1985, p. 251
¹³ Moscati 1985, p. 183

Bibliography

1. Barreca, F. 1974: La Sardegna fenicia e punica, Sassari
2. Bondì 2000: Fenici e punici nel Mediterraneo occidentale tra il 600 e il 500 a C, in: Maxe, La battaglia del Mare Sardonio, Cagliari-Oristano pp. 57-72
3. Bunnens, G. 1983: Considerations geographiques sur la place occupée par la Phénicie dans l'expansion de l'empire Assyrien, in: ed. E. Gubel, E. Lipinski, B. Servais-Soyez, Studia Phoenicia I-II, Leuven, p. 169-193
4. Colonna, G. 2000: I Tyrrhenoi e la battaglia del Mare Sardonio in: Maxe, La battaglia del Mare Sardonio, Cagliari-Oristano, p. 47-56
5. Fantar, M.H. 2000: Carthage au temps de la bataille de la Mer Sardonienne, in: Maxe, La battaglia del Mare Sardonio, Cagliari-Oristano, pp. 73-84
6. Frankenstein, S. 1979: The Phoenicians in the far west. A function of Neo-Assyrian imperialism, in: ed. M.T. Larsen, Power and Propaganda. A symposion on ancient empires, Copenhagen
7. Gras, M. 2000: La battaglia del Mare Sardonio, in: Maxe, La battaglia del Mare Sardonio, Cagliari-Oristano, pp. 37-46
8. Markoe, G.E. 2000, Peoples of the past Phoenicians, London
9. Morel, J.P. 2000: Les Phoceens et la mer Tyrrhenienne au VIe siecle, in: Maxe, La battaglia del Mare Sardonio, Cagliari-Oristano, pp. 19-36
10. Moscati, S 1985: Italia Punica, Milano
11. Sherratt, A.G. & E.S. Sherratt 1993: The growth of the Mediterranean economy in the early first millenium B.C., in: World Archeaology 24, p. 361-378
12. Tronchetti, C. 1995: Il tophet di S. Antioco e le sue stele, Sant'Antioco

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Index Sardinia

Sardinia, an introduction Prehistoric Sardinia The bronze age on Sardinia: The phenomena of the nuraghi The Phoenicians on Sardinia Sardinia under Punic rule From the Kingdom of Sardinia to the present Sardinian culture: Oristano The natural environment on Sardinia The natural environment: southwest Sardinia Travelling information for Sardinia